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A container is a standardized, reusable container designed for the transportation of goods by road, rail, sea and air and adapted for mechanized transfer from one vehicle to another. It can be made of various materials and have various shapes. In transport, the so-called universal containers are most widely used.

For ease of container identification, ISO 6346:1995 introduced “group codes” consisting of two Latin letters:

  • GP (General Purpose) — standard (general purpose, universal) container;
  • DC (Dry Cube) — dry container, very often used instead of GP;
  • RE, RT, RS (Reefer) — reefer container;
  • HI, HR — insulated;
  • VH — container with non-mechanical ventilation system in the lower and upper parts of the cargo space;
  • UT (OT — Open Top) — container with an open top;
  • PF, PS, PC — platform container;
  • TN, TG, TD — tank container (bulk container);
  • BU — bulk container;
  • HC (High Cube) — increased height container (height is increased by one foot in comparison with a standard container);
  • PW (Pallet Wide) — a container with increased width (242-245 cm, allows placing two standard 120 cm pallets side by side);
  • HT (Hard Top) — a container with an opening metal top, however, sometimes this same abbreviation is also used to designate a 20-foot container with increased capacity (Heavy Tested);

Technical characteristics of universal containers:
20 ft. container

  • External dimensions (length/width/height): 6.058 m / 2.438 m / 2.591 m
  • Internal dimensions (length/width/height): 5.758 m / 2.352 m / 2.385 m
  • Door opening (width/height): 2.343 m / 2.280 m
  • Volume: 33.1 m³
  • Maximum gross weight: 30,400 kg
  • Tare weight: 2,200 kg
  • Cargo weight: 28,200 kg

40ft container

  • External dimensions (length/width/height): 12.192 m / 2.438 m / 2.591 m
  • Internal dimensions (length/width/height): 12.032 m / 2.352 m / 2.385 m
  • Door opening (width/height): 2.343 m / 2.280 m
  • Volume: 67.5 m³
  • Maximum gross weight: 30,400 kg
  • Tare weight: 3,800 kg
  • Cargo weight: 26,600 kg

40ft. High-Cube Container

  • External dimensions (length/width/height): 12.190m / 2.438m / 2.896m
  • Internal dimensions (length/width/height): 12.000m / 2.311m / 2.650m
  • Door opening (width/height): 2.280m / 2.560m
  • Volume: 75.3m³
  • Maximum gross weight: 30.848kg
  • Tax weight: 3900kg
  • Cargo weight: 26580kg

45ft. High-Cube Container

  • External dimensions (length/width/height): 13.716 m / 2.438 m / 2.896 m
  • Internal dimensions (length/width/height): 13.556 m / 2.311 m / 2.650 m
  • Door opening (width/height): 2.343 m / 2.585 m
  • Volume: 86.1 m³
  • Maximum gross weight: 30,400 kg
  • Tax weight: 4,800 kg
  • Cargo weight: 25,600 kg

A bill of lading (French: le connaissement; English: bill of lading, B/L, BOL) is a document issued by a cargo carrier to the cargo owner. It certifies the ownership of the shipped goods.

The bill of lading performs several functions simultaneously:

  • a carrier’s receipt of the cargo for transportation, with a simultaneous description of the visible condition of the cargo;
  • consignment note;
  • confirmation of the contract for the carriage of goods;
  • document of title;
  • May serve as security for a loan against shipped goods.

Bills of lading differ in the method of transferring ownership of goods into the following types of these documents:

  • On Board Bill of Lading (Board B/L) – certifying that the goods accepted for carriage have actually been loaded onto the vessel.
  • Delivery order – a document of title issued by the carrier or consignee with confirmation by the ship’s captain. It is used in the event of a partial sale of goods by the consignee before he has accepted delivery. A delivery order is an order to transfer a certain part of the transported cargo to another person at the port of destination.
  • An insured bill of lading is a combination of a transport document and an insurance policy and serves as proof of both acceptance of cargo for transportation and its insurance; it is used when transporting cargo in containers.
  • A Straight Bill of Lading (Straight B/L) is a bill of lading issued in the name of a specific consignee. Under a Straight Bill of Lading, the cargo is transferred at the port of destination to the consignee specified in the bill of lading. The cargo can be issued to another person only on the basis of a transaction executed in compliance with the rules established for the transfer of a debt claim.
  • Bearer bill of lading – transferred in exchange for cargo by simple delivery.
  • Received for shipment Bill of Lading (Received for shipment B/L) – a bill of lading for cargo accepted for loading at a port awaiting a vessel that has not yet arrived.
  • Liner bill of lading (Liner B/L) – a bill of lading issued by or on behalf of a shipping company covering carriage on vessels plying regular routes in accordance with an established and published schedule.
  • Claused bill of lading (Claused B/L; Unclean bill of lading) – a bill of lading in which notes are made about damage to the cargo and/or packaging.
  • Local bill of lading – with reference to the through bill of lading, under which the cargo is accepted for transportation. Local bills of lading have an official significance for the reporting of the line, port and are not documents of title.
  • Order bill of lading or negotiable bill of lading – Order bill of lading; Negotiable bill of landing (Negotiable B/L) – according to which the cargo is transferred either to the “order” of the shipper, or to the “order” of the consignee, or to the “order” of the bank, or by endorsement of the one to whose “order” it is made. If the order bill of lading does not indicate that it is made to the “order” of the consignee, it is considered that it is made to the “order” of the consignor. “Order” is a note about the person to whom the cargo is transferred. Let’s say the consignee cannot work with the cargo at the destination port, in this case the cargo is accepted by the forwarder, who will be this person.
  • Direct bill of lading – a bill of lading covering shipment between direct ports of loading and unloading on the same vessel.
  • Combined (Collapsible) bill of lading – for several cargoes intended for different consignees.
  • Through Bill of Lading (Through B/L, TBL) – provides for the transshipment of cargo to another vessel at an intermediate point and covers the entire transportation of cargo from the port of loading to the final destination. Such transportation is possible if the carrier has several regular lines in different directions or by agreement between two carriers – the one accepting the cargo at the port of departure and delivering it further from the port of transshipment. Usually, carriers jointly transporting cargo under a through bill of lading stipulate their mutual obligations – each carrier is responsible only for the section of the route on which it carries out the transportation. With a through bill of lading, it is important to have clear marks on the transfer of cargo from one carrier to another.
  • Sea waybill is an electronic document confirming the right of ownership of cargo, a simplified bill of lading, which is transferred by the shipper to the consignee after the issuance of the said document. It is a simplified form of documentation, primarily for long-term transactions between regular partners or branches of large companies, when there is a sufficiently high degree of trust between the shipper and the consignee.
  • A bill of lading (French: le connaissement; English: bill of lading, B/L, BOL) is a document issued by a cargo carrier to the cargo owner. It certifies the ownership of the shipped goods.

Incoterms (International Commerce Terms) are international rules in dictionary format that provide unambiguous interpretations of the most widely used trade terms in the field of foreign trade, primarily regarding franco — the place of transfer of responsibility from the seller to the buyer. International trade terms are standard conditions of international sales contracts that are defined in advance in an internationally recognized document.

The main principles regulated by Incoterms are:

  • distribution of transportation costs for the delivery of goods between the seller and the buyer, that is, determining which costs and up to what point the seller bears, and which costs, starting from what point, the buyer bears.
  • the moment of transfer from the seller to the buyer of the risks of damage, loss or accidental destruction of the cargo.
  • the date of delivery of the goods, that is, determining the moment of actual transfer of the goods by the seller to the buyer or his representative – for example, a transport organization – and, consequently, the fulfillment or non-fulfillment of the former’s obligations regarding delivery times.

Outside the scope of Incoterms are the rules for the transfer of ownership from the seller to the buyer, as well as the consequences of the parties’ failure to fulfill their obligations under the contract of sale of goods, including the grounds for releasing the parties from liability, which is regulated by the rules of applicable law or the Vienna Convention.

Each defined term is a three-letter abbreviation, the first letter indicating the point of transition of obligations from the seller to the buyer:

  • E — at the departure point,
  • F — at the terminals of departure of the main carriage, the main carriage is not paid (English: main carriage unpaid),
  • C — at the arrival terminals of the main carriage, the main carriage is paid,
  • D — at the buyer’s place, full delivery (arrival).

Incoterms 2010 defines 11 terms, 7 of which are applicable to any mode of main transport.

  1. EXW (ex works, ex warehouse, ex works): the goods are picked up by the buyer from the seller’s warehouse specified in the contract; payment of export duties is the buyer’s responsibility.
  2. FCA (free carrier): the goods are delivered to the customer’s main carrier to the departure terminal specified in the contract; export duties are paid by the seller.
  3. CPT (carriage paid to…): the goods are delivered to the customer’s main carrier, the main transportation to the arrival terminal specified in the contract is paid by the seller, the insurance costs are borne by the buyer, import customs clearance and delivery from the arrival terminal of the main carrier are carried out by the buyer.
  4. CIP (carriage and insurance paid to…): the same as CPT, but the main carriage is insured by the seller.
  5. DAT (delivered at terminal): delivery to the import customs terminal specified in the contract is paid, i.e. export payments and the main transportation, including insurance, are paid by the seller, import customs clearance is carried out by the buyer.
  6. DAP (delivered at point): delivery to the destination specified in the contract, import duties and local taxes are paid by the buyer.
  7. DDP (delivered duty paid): the goods are delivered to the customer at the destination specified in the contract, cleared of all duties and risks.

Incoterms 2010 also defines 4 terms applicable exclusively to maritime transport and territorial waters transport:

  1. FOB (free on board): the goods are shipped to the buyer’s vessel, the seller pays for transshipment.
  2. FAS (free alongside ship): the goods are delivered to the buyer’s vessel, the port of loading is indicated in the contract, transshipment and loading are paid by the buyer.
  3. CFR (cost and freight): the goods are delivered to the buyer’s port of destination specified in the contract; the buyer pays for the insurance of the main transportation, unloading and transshipment.
  4. CIF (Cost, Insurance and Freight): same as CFR, but the seller insures the main carriage.

The content of Incoterms changes in various revisions, for example, in Incoterms 2010, in comparison with Incoterms 2000, the term DAP was introduced to replace the excluded DAF (delivered at frontier, delivery to the border), DES (delivered ex ship, delivery on board the vessel at the port of destination) and DDU (delivered, duty unpaid, delivery to the specified place without customs clearance), and instead of DEQ (delivered ex quey, delivery to the port), the more general term DAT was introduced.

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